In the wake of Sept. 11, airports are scrambling to revamp their security systems and assure passengers that flying is again safe.
An electrifying incident last December, in which British passenger Richard Reid attempted to set off plastic explosives hidden in his shoes while on a flight from Paris to Miami, suggested airports still must work to strengthen security measures.
U.S. authorities identified the explosives in Reid's shoes as triacetone triperoxide, a substance composed of readily available chemicals.
TATP is very unstable and is sensitive to heat, shock, temperature changes and friction.
"It could have been detonated by accident when he stomped his foot hard," Physics Prof. Louis Bloomfield said.
Since then, airport authorities have required questionable passengers to take off their shoes for X-ray detection.
Several security technology companies are developing new equipment to prevent airline passengers from carrying on explosives, but without making them remove their shoes.
Ancore of Santa Clara, Calif., developed its own Small Parcel Explosive Detection System that uses a technology known as thermal neutron activation to detect explosives hidden in luggage.
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Californium atoms inside SP-EDS equipment release neutrons that emit gamma radiation when they strike other atoms. The emitted gamma rays vary in frequency depending on what kinds of atoms are present - plastic explosives typically contain large amounts of nitrogen.
"If someone's luggage is filled with nitrogen atoms, you see a lot of neutrons captured by the nitrogen nuclei and gamma rays characteristic of the nitrogen nuclei will be emitted," Bloomfield said.
To spot and stop known terrorists, some security officials have suggested Americans should carry "smart cards" that store a wealth of personal information.
The cards potentially could be used with fingerprint readers, iris scanners and voice and face recognition software to confirm identity.
For example, fingerprint scanners would scan and convert fingerprints into a series of binary digits and store them in a database.
In order for individuals to gain access to a secured area protected by these devices, their hand geometry must match the information stored in the database.
Even more exotic is the iris scanner, which measures 247 independent variables for each eye.
The variability in iris patterns is so great that even identical twins can be distinguished from one another, giving airport officials another high-tech method of completing background checks.
Other technologies might catch known terrorists by positive identification - face geometry scanners could be installed in airports to recognize terrorists' facial features.
According to Noni, however, there are several problems associated with face geometry technology. Most importantly, the face imprints of known terrorists must be catalogued before identification is possible. Such imprints are difficult to obtain and do nothing to screen unknown terrorists.
Furthermore, a close up, clear picture of the person is needed in order to obtain a positive identification.
Boeing, a major U.S. aircraft manufacturer, developed an emergency landing system to deal with hijackers who manage to sneak past such a maze of security checkpoints.
The system, which relies on the Global Positioning System, is activated by identifying changes in the pilot's heartbeat patterns.
Despite the flood of new airport security systems available, airports have been slow to adopt them because the technology costs so much.
"Security solutions which would have prevented the Sept. 11 attacks have existed for some time," said Noli Control Systems owner Jeff Noni, whose company provides security consultation for a variety of corporations. "The problem has always been the expense of implementing these solutions."
Additional high-tech security also can make air travel a headache for passengers.
"Passengers understand that new security procedures have increased processing times," said Troy Bell, Richmond International Airport director of marketing and air service development.
But while they are patient "they do not enjoy waiting," Bell added.
Security-related delays and flight cancellations also cause airports to lose money. But some say convenience should not always be sacrificed for heightened security.
"The cost of travelers' time cannot be neglected. They should consider the cost effectiveness of every alternative," Economics Prof. Edgar Olsen said.
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